paralogism - definition and examples

paralogism - definition and examples Definition Paralogism is a term in logic and rhetoric for a fallacious or defective argument or conclusion.In the field of rhetoric, in particular, paralogism is generally regarded as a type of sophism or pseudo-syllogism.In the  Critique of Pure Reason  (1781/1787), German philosopher  Immanuel Kant identified  four paralogisms corresponding to the four fundamental knowledge claims of rational psychology: substantiality, simplicity, personality, and ideality. Philosopher  James Luchte points out that the section on the Paralogisms was . . . subject to differing accounts in the First and Second Editions of the First Critique (Kants Critique of Pure Reason: A Readers Guide, 2007). See Examples and Observations below. Also see: FallacyInformal LogicLogicSophistry EtymologyFrom the Greek, beyond reason   Examples and Observations [Paralogism is illogical] reasoning, particularly of which the reasoner is unconscious. . . .Ex: I asked him [Salvatore, a simpleton] whether it was not also true that lords and bishops accumulated possessions through tithes, so that the Shepherds were not fighting their true enemies. He replied that when your true enemies are too strong, you have to choose weaker enemies (Umberto Eco, The Name of the Rose, p. 192).(Bernard Marie Dupriez and Albert W. Halsall, A Dictionary of Literary Devices. University of Toronto Press, 1991)Paralogism is either Fallacy, if unintentional, or Sophism, if intended to deceive. It is under the latter aspect particularly that Aristotle considers false reasoning.(Charles S. Peirce, Qualitative Logic, 1886) Aristotle on Paralogism and PersuasionThe use of psychological and aesthetic strategies is based, first, on the fallacy of the linguistic sign, for not being the same thing as the reality it names, and, secondly, on the fallacy of what follows somethin g is the effect of this. Indeed,  Aristotle says that the reason why persuasion derives from psychological and stylistic strategies is a paralogism or fallacy in both cases. We instinctively think that the orator that shows us a certain emotion or trait of character through his speech, when he employs the appropriate style, well adapted to the emotion of the audience or the character of the speaker, can make a fact credible. The hearer, indeed, will be under the impression that the orator is speaking the truth, when his linguistic signs correspond exactly with the facts they describe. Hence the hearer thinks, consequently, that in such circumstances his own feelings or reactions would be the same (Aristotle, Rhetoric  1408a16).(A. Là ³pez Eire, Rhetoric and Language.  A Companion to Greek Rhetoric, ed. by  Ian Worthington. Blackwell, 2007) Paralogism as Self-DeceptionThe word paralogism is taken from formal logic, in which it is used to designate a specific type of formally fallacious syllogism: Such a syllogism is a paralogism insofar as one deceives oneself by it. [Immanuel] Kant distinguishes a paralogism, thus defined, from what he calls a sophism; the latter is a formally fallacious syllogism with which one deliberately tries to deceive others. So, even in its more logical sense, paralogism is more radical than that mere sophistry which, directing others into error, still reserves the truth for itself. It is rather self-deception, inevitable illusion without reserve of truth. . . . Reason entangles itself in paralogism in that sphere in which self-deception can assume its most radical form, the sphere of rational psychology; reason involves itself in self-deception regarding itself.(John Sallis, The  Gathering of Reason, 2nd ed. State University of New York Press, 2005) Kant on ParalogismToday the term [paralog ism] is associated almost entirely with Immanuel Kant who, in a section of his first Critique on Transcendental Dialectic, distinguished between Formal and Transcendental Paralogisms. By the latter he understood the Fallacies of Rational Psychology which began with the I think experience as premise, and concluded that man possesses a substantial, continuous, and separable soul. Kant also termed this the Psychological Paralogism, and the Paralogisms of Pure Reasoning.(William L. Reese, Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion. Humanities Press, 1980) Also Known As: fallacy, false reasoning

Higher ratings and wider range of the audience Research Paper - 1

Higher ratings and wider range of the audience - Research Paper Example The new late night show program has been aired for three months now but still suffers from low ratings. At first, we had high ratings because our program is officially the first late night show that directed and produced similarly to an American late-night show but then ratings went down from 16% to 7% during last three months. From the survey we conducted, the style of the production is unfamiliar to the viewers because they have not seen this style of the production before. To increase viewer ratings, the program needs more promotions and system that makes the audience engages in the program. For the above reasons, Taeho Kim assigned me to find ways to increase ratings and promote the program. Mr Kim gave me a set of criteria for the new system. First, the total budget allowed for the project is $15,000. Second, the new system must give the evidence that we have higher ratings and wider range of the audience. Third, the new system needs to be more cost-effective and has a long-term effect. Through the research I have conducted, three appropriate options were realized for the improvement of the program. Social networks, hiring of celebrities as co-host, and changing and improving the script are among the options that this paper will be dealing with. Locally, it is relevant to say that all these networks have the capacity to promote shows especially the late night shows and thus, could give people the idea and the knowledge of the advantages the viewers could get by watching the show.

Kant's Ethics (essay) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Kant's Ethics ( ) - Essay Example But Kant postulated that a person's ethics, his course of action was guided by duty. He argued that a person may misapprehend a situation if he were acting out reason alone and that if he were acting out of experience only then it would be prejudiced if not supported with a proper reason. (Sullivan, 1994) Kant devised a singular moral obligation or categorical imperative which in turn is borne out of duty to explain his postulates. An imperative is a command that forces a person to exercise his will. A hypothetical imperative is a conditional command, that is, a person might be doing something to achieve some desired end. His actions are therefore conditional. Kant argued that morality required an unconditional assertion of a man's duty and hence postulated that reason decrees an unconditional or categorical imperative. The three formulations of Categorical Imperative are What the first formulation achieves to prove is that any deed cannot be moral if it is committed keeping an end result in mind. To establish a good deed the action has to be carried out without keeping the end result in mind. So to act in any situation one must exercise his will in the way he expects others to. The second formulation says that when faced with a moral situation one must think what others would not do in a similar situation. So if naturally no one does it, one must not do the same. The third formulation summarizes the whole of the Kantian moral philosophy by explaining that an act should be conducted under rationality. A rational will can exercise his will morally simply because the person can act without attaching any conditional worth to his actions. (Teale, 1951) He treats humanity not merely as means to an end but the end only. That is he commits an act out of a sense of duty rather than trying to achieve some other hidden propaganda through this deed. Thus he was able to prove that adherence to Categorical Imperatives ensures autonomous ethical choice because rational will is always autonomous and Kant puts rational will at the core of his postulates. This was based on Kant's own arguments for autonomy of the will against heteronomy of the will. He came to the conclusion that when a person acts out of his reasoning as opposed to some external law or command his actions would be more moral. Though the arguments seem plausible one cannot discount the fact that the autonomous will of a person may inherently be negative. What if the will of a person and others around him are also corrupted What can then act as an impulse for the actions of that person Kant seems to; as did Rousseau, believe in the basic goodness of humans. What moral code guides the acts of terrorism as it manifests itself in today's world The killing of innocent lives may be immoral to the larger section of the society but for the terrorists committing these acts may well be borne out of a sense of duty. (Sullivan, 1994) Kant himself answers this question. He argues that a rational will cannot act "except under the idea" of its own freedom. He says that there is no basis for

Use SOSTAC to prepare a strategy document on how Gold Reef City Assignment - 1

Use SOSTAC to prepare a strategy document on how Gold Reef City (casino) could take the Rewards Programme from a functional experience to an emotional experience - Assignment Example A lot of time and resources go into running a business. Casinos, in particular, are a very tricky business to venture into because they require constant scrutiny, and if the owners are not cautious enough, the business may go bankrupt. Individuals frequent casinos to enjoy themselves while at the same time trying to make some money. Gambling is the primary activity that occurs within casinos and has brought both good and bad fortunes to the people who frequent casinos. Numerous numbers of people have lost billions of dollars in these casinos while quite a number of people have gained wealth from casinos. Some unscrupulous dealers operate some casinos and fleece their customers of their hard-earned money. It is, therefore, important that the authorities investigate these casinos for malpractice and fraud. The Gold Reef City Casino has to conduct a situation analysis before it can commence its operations. A situation analysis is a collection of methods that the organizations management uses to analyze its influences to better understand the organization`s capabilities, business environment and customers. A situation analysis consists of two areas namely micro and macroeconomics. Microeconomics refers to the study of business and individual decisions while macroeconomics refers to the study of higher decision makers, for example, the government. Macroeconomics looks at the external forces and factors that affect the business. The Gold Reef City casino has also conducted a situation analysis, and the recommendations were divided into two categories Micro and macroeconomics. The microeconomics include the new developments and upgrades that are well underway and the soon to be completed. The casino has invested in a new gaming area that is expected to bring in more customers and consequently more revenue. The incorporation of a new gaming system, which has

Impact of Gender Inequality on Social Development Outcomes

Impact of Gender Inequality on Social Development Outcomes Reviewing the literature, it is clear that gender inequality has no positive effects on social development outcomes. On growth, the net impact of gender inequality is quite ambiguous; it can be a great hindrance to growth or only circumstantially support it. Wages and income are rapidly affected and can change aggregate demand. These differences in wages and income regulate the incentive systems which plan investment in human capital, which in turn affects growth. Gender gaps in education, on the other side are unfavorable to long term growth, due to the large positive externalities generated by female education, enhanced parental human capital dissemination and reduced fertility. Gender inequality in health and life expectancy impede long term growth and efficiency due to reduced working lives and lower productivity levels. These health and education impacts are the obstacle produced by gender inequality to social development. On social development, gender inequality is generally harmful, as equality improves societal health and education outcomes, as well as generating large externalities for society as a whole. The economic effects of gender inequality are now well recognized, despite the lack of a precise and broad body of research and literature. Chapters Two and Three emphasize the significance of gender equality in education and health as both are essential determinants of growth and social development. It is vital to continue this target to obtain the gains from improved female education while exercising concern not to overlook men’s own gender particular problems. Gender equality is definitely a dominant economic tool for economic and social development, requiring the foundation of opportunities for both sexes to maintain long-term growth, economic efficiency, social development and good governance. Ceteris paribus, there is enough evidence to believe that in the long-run, achievement of the goal of gender-equal opportunities in labor, health and education is far more efficient than the pervasive gender inequality we see today. The policy issue now will be to convert equality of opportunities into equal outcomes. The complexity of gender inequality does indeed stress that there may be a ‘market failure’ in achieving gender-equitable outcomes, but there is insufficient evidence to state whether or not forced outcomes will yield net productivity gains compared with the gender inequality existing conditions. Gender gaps in health and life expectancy harm a nation’s long term growth and productivity, and in employment they have negative effects on aggregate demand and short run output. Furthermore, female capital per worker has been shown to have a higher return than male capital per worker, and practical application of neoclassical theory shows that a higher steady-state output and growth rate will correspond with capital investment that is skewed towards the female. The benefits and costs to economic growth imposed by gender inequality are clearly skewed so that a reduction in gender inequality is a more favorable outcome to reach a higher long-term growth path, as the circumstantial and exceptional studies are somewhat more myopic and set over a certain period. Gender inequality may also promote growth in that it is a second-best solution for a male dominated political conflict and civil unrest which arises out of inequality. Having women bear the greater share of a nation’s income inequality, as they have historically done in patriarchal societies, may be a preferred option to society as a whole bearing this burden. It will decrease the likelihood of militant groups forming, and conflict then erupting over income inequality, which would create a far greater obstacle to growth. All of these findings suggest that gender inequality is harmful for the health and education aspects of social development, while supporting the policy opinion of lessening education and health gaps between men and women – often by targeting women directly. The other forms of social development previously discussed – health and education – have an important effect on the reduction of poverty and there is a high degree of linkage, especially with the different degrees of poverty and different definitions. These definitions have been broadened from just monetary poverty to include poverty in opportunity, capabilities, institutions and much more. While gender inequality and poverty are closely related, there is adequate evidence to show that reducing gender inequality only is not enough to reduce poverty. Just as economic growth, education, investment, aid or any other single variable is not enough to address poverty, neither is improving gender equality. Poverty reduction through gender equality will be brought about through a number of means – including health, education, and economic growth. While positive health and education outcomes are admittedly very useful tools for addressing poverty, the degree to which gender inequality directly determines poverty rates is very uncertain, and we cannot specify that simply improving gender inequality will reduce poverty. The influences of gender equality on human capital and economic growth are far better tools for poverty reduction than blindly putting more women in school, jobs and parliament. CONCLUSION  Ã‚  RECOMMENDATIONS Conclusion Gender differences in all socio economic aspects of earnings, wages, ability, health, capital and poverty broadened in several countries because women cannot have access and control over resources, gain from economic opportunities, and determine their authority in political field. The outcome suggests that an exogenous boost in girls’ access to education creates an enhanced environment for economic growth and that the effect is mostly strong for middle income countries. However the indirect effects on growth happen through the growth externalities of fertility, investments in children. I have reached the conclusion that gender inequality normally has undesirable effects on all facets of socioeconomic development. Moreover, there are extremely little facts to advocate that any economic effectiveness vs. gender parity trade off exists gender equality is also gender efficient. Gender inequality is now gradually becoming known as an imperative macroeconomic variable, but still not considered as a major determinant of growth. Recommendation The economic effects of gender inequality are now well recognized, despite the lack of a specific and extensive body of research and literature. I have been able to draw some definitive policy recommendations from the research conducted in this project, but there is still much to understand if we are to act effectively and decisively. International development practitioners have adopted the policy of ‘gender mainstreaming’, but despite this involving both sexes by definition, there is a recurring and persistent focus on women. In advanced economies, women are now more educated than men and male tertiary enrolments are declining,[1] meaning that we should expect to see a decline in aggregate male human capital. This may be a concern, especially if men are better at mathematics and technical sciences. Furthermore, the declining fertility rates of these advanced economies have led to serious skill shortages, population shortages, and structural labor market problems. This project offers clear evidence that gender equality may assist in poverty reduction through a number of different channels, but that it cannot be expected to directly, independently and systematically reduce poverty. It is recommended that gender equality is never viewed as a ‘magic-bullet’ solution to poverty reduction or ‘development’. In fact, it appears that promoting gender equality in education and employment may be one of those few policies that have been termed ‘win-win’ strategies. It would promote economic welfare and effectiveness, promote other critical human development goals such as lower mortality and fertility, and it would be intrinsically valuable as well. The task at hand is to develop a framework to understand and deal with the reinforcing social and economic structures of gender inequality. [1] WDI, 2009

Road to Fluency Essay -- Language

For the past decades, a vast amount of immigrants have made their way into our nation. For work, reuniting with family, fleeing from poverty, and various other reasons many immigrants have added to our already massive and diverse population. Along with picking up and moving their life to the United States, many of these immigrants that have fled to our nation have brought along their families. More specifically though is the many immigrant children that have been brought to America. By the time the new millennium reached in the year 2000, â€Å"over 3 million students in the U.S. schools were counted as ‘limited English proficient’, a number that is almost double what it was just 10 years before† (Olsen 2). With our nations’ schools increasing in English language learners it has now reached a point where these students are not always the minority. Because of this it puts more attention on theses students and it has been said by many specialists that not enough attention has been paid to including these English language learners appropriately since their arrival. However, the most challenging task for teachers has been to take these English language learners and make them fluent in English. In order for our nations’ teachers to meet the needs of the many English language learners, teachers today must incorporate strategies to successfully teach writing and literacy. One can only imagine how it would feel to come to a new country and not know the native language, but for English language learners this is a challenge they face everyday. As immigrants, these students lack knowledge of the English language and as they are put in the U.S. school system they face the challenge of not only learning English but also learning other sub... ...ively teach ELLs to be successful in writing and literacy, and more importantly to become successful and happy students. Works Cited Beckett, E. Carol and Perry Kay Haley. â€Å"Using Standards to Integrate Academic Language into ESL Fluency.† The Clearing House. 74. 2 (2000): 102-104 Brice, Alejandro and Celeste Roseberry-Mckibbin. Turning frustration into success for English Language Learners. Educational Leadership, 56.7 (1999): 53-55. Jong, Ester and Candace A. Harper. â€Å"Preparing Mainstream Teachers for English- Language Learners: Is being a Good Teacher Good Enough†. Teacher Education Quarterly (2006) Myer, Lois. â€Å"Barriers to Meaningful Instruction for English Learners.† Theory into Practice. 39.4 (2000): 228-36. Olsen, Laurie. â€Å"Learning English and Learning America: Immigrants in the Center of A Storm.† Theory into Practice. 39.4 (2000): 196-202

Oedipus the King Essay

In Sophocles’ Oedipus the King, the themes of fate and free will are very strong throughout the play. Only one, however, brought about Oedipus’ downfall and death. Both points could be argued to great effect. In ancient Greece, fate was considered to be a rudimentary part of daily life. Every aspect of life depended and was based upon fate (Nagle 100). It is common belief to assume that mankind does indeed have free will and each individual can decide the outcome of his or her life. Fate and free will both decide the fate of Oedipus the King. Both sides of the argument can be greatly supported. The Greeks believed in the idea that personality of the individual greatly affected his or her life (Nagle 120). Their personality was what decides their own free will. A wise man will make good decisions in his life; an ignorant and stubborn man won’t be so fortunate. The character traits of a person have a certain positive or negative affect on the choices that he or she makes. For Oedipus, one of these attributes was the desire for knowledge and truth about his own existence. This driving force in the play led to the truth of his origin. This ties in with his own aspect of free will. His free will is based on his drive for knowledge. Throughout the entire play, Oedipus pushes Tiresias, Creon, Jocasta, the oracle, the messenger, and the shepherd for information regarding his beginnings. Each one of these characters in some way or form refused to give him a thorough answer. As he draws closer to the answer, another character tries to stop his journey. Oedipus continues moving onward even though others request he didn’t. â€Å"Oh no, listen to me, I beg you, don’t do this†¦. Listen to you? No more. I must know it all, see the truth at last † (Sophocles 195). His desire for truth kept pushing him to continue his search, ultimately leading to his downfall. The entire time Oedipus had the capability to discontinue the plight. However he made the independent decision to continue. Another instance where choices directly linked Oedipus to the prophecy was at the crossroads. Oedipus demonstrates an important trait in his character, stubbornness. This trait is visible when Oedipus reacted to the man pushing him aside at the crossroads. â€Å"the one shouldering me aside, the driver, I strike him in anger! †¦. I killed them all–every mother’s son! † (Sophocles 189). In ancient times when a caravan was coming down the road they usually pushed you to the side. Oedipus didn’t like this and flipped out, killing all of them. It was his stubbornness that caused this to happen. His personality led to the decision to kill the caravan and unknowingly, his father too. If he were a wise and content man, then his decision would have differed. When Oedipus defeated the Sphinx by solving the riddle, he could have refused to take the missing king’s throne. He could have also declined to marry the former king’s wife, unaware that the queen was his own mother. He accepted both of these without any regrets. If his decision was different it might have altered the course of events in the future. His personality made sure that the decisions went the way they did. These choices were made by Oedipus with his own free will, his own decisions. He didn’t have to accept these gifts, but did none the less. These conclusions would lead to his own demise, but they were his own mistakes, not fate. Free will can also be found in the actions of Jocasta and Laius. The choices they made were not made by their own judgement, but rather reactions to a situation that neither of them was prepared to deal with. Upon hearing the prophecy that foretold the future sins in their household; they made a harsh decision out of fear. They had little Oedipus sent to die at the foothills of a mountain. This reaction seems very cruel, but back in ancient times it was very natural. Being that an oracle foretold the prophecy, Jocasta and Laius responded as any Greek parents would. They solved the problem by removing Oedipus from the equation, but in the end their decision wasn’t the right one. This leaves the readers of the play to wonder what might have happened if Jocasta and Lauis never sent Oedipus to die as an infant. Would the prophecy still have taken place? It seems that it wouldn’t have, because Oedipus wouldn’t have engaged in the misled wandering after he left his adopted home. Oedipus would have had no reason to fulfill the prophecy, but that is another question that we don’t know. On the other hand, if Oedipus didn’t listen to the prophecy suggested to him in Corinth, he never would have returned to Thebes to carry out his destiny. All these instances can be looked at that free will was the deciding factor. Was it really? Fate can also be looked upon in every instance, equally a strong argument against free will. Oedipus’ desire for knowledge can also be looked at by the standpoint of fate. He was born with his own stubbornness. The Gods themselves made him that way and it can not be changed. No matter what his decisions were, their gift to him will lead to the path they gave him. He can’t escape the fate the Gods have given him. He kept pushing farther and father, but it just led to his downfall. Nothing he could have done would have stopped that. The prophets make this clear in their prophecies throughout the text. All the premonitions they say come true. They can’t be avoided because the Gods made you with your personality and it controls your life. Ultimately they control you. When Oedipus reaches the crossroads, it was fate that led to the events that took place. â€Å"Short work, by god-with one blow of the staff† (Sophocles 189). This quote reveals that the gods did play apart in the events that took place. Oedipus’ prophecy was to kill his own father. Unwillingly because of his stubbornness Oedipus struck down and did indeed kill his father. Because the gods gave him this trait, his fate was unavoidable. The traits of Oedipus would generate the right sequence of events that would eventually lead to his prophecy coming true. Oedipus’ personality was the cause of the events. His free will blended in with the fate given to him by the gods. All together it was fate that decided these actions. The prophecy given to Lauis and Jocasta is also another example of unavoidable fate. Even though it wasn’t there own choices to get rid of their son, their reaction to the prophecy set up the events for the future. If they never sent Oedipus to die at the mountainside, he most likely never would have killed Lauis at the crossroads. Their reaction was to a message given to them by the Gods. The Gods dictated what was going to happen. They told the prophet to give out the prophecy. Leading to the vanquishing of little Oedipus. All along every action leads to ones fate in life. The greatest show of fate in the text is when Oedipus gauges his eyes out with the golden clips. He does this in reaction to the events that take place. Oedipus was aware that he alone was responsible for his actions and gauged his own eyes out. That is the free will standpoint on the issue. Oedipus was at the same time not responsible for his actions. The gods controlled his personality and therefore controlled the outcome of his life. If Oedipus realized this he might not have taken his own sight. The gods use their power to provoke human’s free will. They were responsible for the demise of Oedipus, but in the same time convince the human that it was there fault. Free will and fate can be related to every aspect of Oedipus the King. The gods who control fate manipulate the thinking and concepts in human’s free will. Ultimately fate is what overcomes all. It may not seem like it, but free will was given to mankind by the gods or God. So in turn the gods decide the fate of everybody when they created man. It was already decided and can not be changed. One can still argue the position that free will is more dominant, but if you relate to creation and how the gods made man, fate overcomes. In Oedipus the King, Sophocles made it clear to his fellow Greeks that mankind has the ability, even with prophecies and oracles, to make choices free from influence of divine forces. He also shows that fate does play a part in human’s lives too. They tie into each other for a direct balance. Overall, fate is the divine power that controls free will and determines one’s life.